Photoshopping Reality

Photoshopping Reality: The Effects of Photoshopping in a Digitalized World

Lauren Newton

December 2021

Photoshopping Reality: The Effects of Photoshopping in a Digitalized World

Since social media took storm over the past decades, a reliance on its interconnectivity has grown among adolescents and young adults alike. It’s become so ubiquitous that many use online interactions as an extension of their real lives (Huang et al., 2018). Social media serves as an arena for personal expression, however, when users aren’t secure in their identities or lack confidence in themselves, they often seek validation from their online communities (McLean et al., 2015). Furthermore, when individuals use social media to heighten their sense of self or create a false sense of happiness or success, a disconnect between real emotions and online facades emerges. Those who remain true to themselves online often maintain stability offline, while those who are inauthentic struggle to find fulfillment (Yang et al., 2017). While social media users of all demographics have reported negative effects of overuse of social media, early adolescents are especially susceptible to its harms: they are less secure in their identities, so they tend to experiment with their online presence far more than young adults (Yang et al., 2017).

In an app like Instagram, where photos are the means of communicating, individuals, especially women, feel a pressure to showcase their best selves (Huang et al., 2018). Largely due to societal expectations, women face pressure to post photos that emphasize their physical beauty and objectify their bodies (Sabik et al., 2020). Already overcome with higher levels of body-dissatisfaction than men, women often fall victim to a cycle of comparison and self-deprecation online (Lonergan et al., 2019). When comparing photos to friends and strangers, this inevitably leads to a preoccupation with the self image and the body image (Mclean et al. 2015). As a result of this online self-scrutiny, research has found high associations between women’s social media use and depressive symptoms (Barthorpe et al., 2020).

The media has traditionally been a guide to what’s considered ideal beauty, and early research primarily focused on the impact of advertisement models on young adolescents’ self-esteem (Kleemans et al., 2018). With advanced photoshopping and editing techniques, advertisers have presented unnatural depictions of women for decades. However, research has found peers dictate ideal standards more strongly than models, because peers are perceived to be more relatable (Kleemans et al., 2018). Unfortunately, photoshopping technologies are becoming available to the average online user, so much so that girls begin learning about them before they’re even teens (Kiefner-Burmeister & Musher-Eizenman, 2018). A cycle of editing abuse is easy to fall victim to – those dissatisfied with their appearances are more likely to photoshop their photos, however, those who do photoshop their photos report higher levels of dissatisfaction as a result (Lonergan et al., 2019). The growing use of photoshop also creates a hostile online environment for all users – research has found that girls’ body images decline as a direct result of viewing photoshopped photos (Kleemans et al., 2018). This study aims to discover what individual and social factors lead girls to photoshop their photos and what impact photoshopping has on their well-being.

Self Presentation and Identity Reconstruction

Young adults have always felt a pressure to form an identity true to themselves and respected by others, and this desire has only been amplified by social media and an age of comparison. One’s identity can be defined as the combination of the most defining characteristics of a person, or what distinguishes one person from another (Huang et al., 2018). When communicating that identity to others, people can tweak and adjust the way they present themselves depending on the circumstance. This is true in both the physical world and online world. However, in the physical world, there are restraints to this so-called identity reconstruction: when speaking face to face, it’s difficult to hide one’s personality, and certainly difficult to change one’s physical attributes (Huang et al., 2018). Unable to interact with physical cues, online users are given the freedom to completely construct their identities online. With the ability to do so, users often present only favorable characteristics and neglect to share perceived imperfections (Huang et al., 2018).

Self presentation involves adjusting oneself during social interactions in order to create a more desirable impression on one’s audience (Mills et al., 2018). Jang et al. (2021) distinguish the “true-self,” who people feel they truly are, and the “positive self”, the online personas many cultivate to seem more desirable. Strategic self-presentation describes the act of intentionally placing more desirable images online - in other words, not presenting followers with the fuller picture (Jang et al., 2021). Research shows that the majority of postings online are positive in nature because individuals have the tendency to process negative events privately (Cingel & Olson, 2018).  Furthermore, online users tend to over represent their positive life events and exaggerate their positive emotional responses to those events online (Wertz et al., 2018). As a result of viewing idealized, positive images, online users tend to underestimate how often others experience negative emotions, which often makes their lives seem worse in comparison (Cingel & Olson, 2018).

Though this theory emphasizes posting positive images, research has found that individuals often experience negative consequences as a result of self-presentation. This can be explained through the self-discrepancy theory, which posits that individuals have multiple viewpoints about themselves: the “actual self,” the “ideal self,” and the “ought self” (Kim, 2021). Inconsistency with the actual self and the ideal self results in detrimental emotional effects, including psychological anxiety. With social media, there’s ample opportunity to compare the “ideal” self to the “actual” self because people’s idealized lives are tangible and concrete in the form of posts (Kim, 2021). Cingel & Olson (2018) note that self-presentation often backfires: though users hope representing positive events will boost their own self image, this isn’t always the case. Those with low self-esteem are better able to note the difference between their online personas and their real lives, creating vast identity confusion (Cingel & Olson, 2018).

Strategic self-presentation is not only problematic for individuals employing it; it also creates a hostile and unrealistic atmosphere online for all users. It becomes problematic when an entire community of users are presenting their ‘best’ self because the norm becomes an unnatural and unrealistic representation of life (Mills et al., 2018).

Social Comparison

Social comparison can be defined as the “process of thinking about information about one or more people in relation to the self” (Olivos et al., 2021). Social comparison is asymmetrical in nature because individuals can either compare upward or downward, meaning they can compare themselves to either ‘better’ or ‘lesser’ individuals. For example, users unhappy with their lives may compare themselves to those less fortunate to them. In that case, downward self-comparison can lead to gratitude, relief, or satisfaction; however, studies show that most people engage in both upward and downward comparison (Olivos et al., 2021). Furthermore, Kim et al. (2021) suggest that most social media users are more likely to solely engage in upward comparison. Though it can lead to self enhancement and motivation, in most cases, upward comparison fosters envy or resentment (Kim et al., 2021).

As mentioned, individuals have a tendency to post images online that are positive and paint themselves in the best light. Therefore, simply scrolling through social media gives users exposure to unrealistic, or even impossible, beauty standards (Mills et al., 2018). Though there’s been bountiful research about the negative impact of exposure to idealized images in advertisements for young girls, research has found that people more often compare themselves to peers because they’re perceived to be more relatable (Kleemans et al., 2018). Research has shown that peer comparison may have graver effects than celebrity comparison, and Kim et al. (2021) suggest that upward social comparison has a positive association with worsened health, both mental and physical.

Social Media Practices, Self Esteem, and Body Image

Research has found that individuals who spend more time on social media are more likely to engage in social comparison (Cingel & Olson, 2018). Though social comparison isn’t limited to the online world, it’s far easier to escalate online because of how readily available comparison information is on social media. Online users can “monitor the other viewers’ collective reactions” with ease (Kim, 2021).  

       The time spent on social media is not the only factor contributing to social media’s negative effects; the frequency and type of content people post contribute as well. Research found that girls who regularly post selfies have higher body dissatisfaction, suggesting that seeking for validation online merely worsens existing esteem issues (McLean et al., 2015). Furthermore, the way users approach posting is influenced by their self-esteem: users with higher self-esteem draw attention to their positive features, while users with lower self-esteem report using social media to hide their flaws (Cingel & Olsen, 2018).

        Self esteem, one’s feeling of self-worth, can be based on many aspects, including feeling “attractive, loved, competent, powerful, and virtuous” (Sabik et al., 2020). Valkenburg et al. (2021) describe that self-esteem can fluctuate significantly for some individuals – those reliant on social approval to maintain self-worth appear to have unstable senses of self, and their self-esteem wavers heavily (Sabik et al., 2020).

Research has indicated that self-esteem is both an independent and dependent variable of social media abuse. People with already lower self esteems may be more likely to use social media to search for validation (Sabik et al., 2020). Kim et al. (2021) found that those with depression and impulsivity are more likely to develop an addiction to social media. However, the more they use social media in hopes to improve morale, the more depressed they may feel (Kim et al., 2021). Valkenburg et al. (2021) found that adolescents who spend more time on social media reported lower self-esteem than those who spend less time online. Furthermore, the way users approach posting is influenced by their self-esteem: users with higher self-esteem draw attention to their positive features, while users with lower self-esteem report using social media to hide their flaws (Cingel & Olsen, 2018). Research has also revealed that time spent on social media is positively associated with an increased risk of self-harm, particularly for females (Barthorpe et. al., 2020).

Not surprisingly, users with higher self-esteem are less likely to fall victim to the negative effects of social media. One study found that users with greater purpose in life place less importance on the amount of likes they get on each photo (Burrow & Ranoine, 2017). Similarly, studies show that individuals with higher self esteem don’t feel the need to devote time and energy to social media because they’re less vulnerable to identity threats (Cingel & Olson, 2018).

Body image is a multidimensional concept that can be categorized by individuals’ perceptions and attitudes about their bodies as well as their preoccupation with their physical appearance (Rajagopalan, 2020). Research indicates that adolescents often perceive their bodies differently than they appear in reality, and this discrepancy generally results in higher body dissatisfaction (Rajagopalan, 2020). Though both genders struggle with maintaining positive body images, women face harsher pressures: largely due to societal expectations, women more frequently post photos that emphasize their physical beauty and objectify their bodies, inevitably leading to a preoccupation with the body (Sabik et al., 2020).

The impact of media on body image can be explained by two factors: the internalization of an ideal depicted online and social comparison with one’s own body (Kim, 2021). Research has found that women who internalize the thin ideal body type reported high levels of social comparison online, which consequently led to decreased body satisfaction and worsened moods (Sabik et al., 2020). Additionally, McLean et al. (2015) reveal that appearance-focused social media use is positively associated with high body-related and eating concerns. This can be explained by the negative contrast theory, which posits that when females compare themselves to idealized, thin bodies online, it consequently leads to higher body dissatisfaction (Kleemans et. al, 2018). High levels of comparison are especially problematic because it is a risk factor for eating disorders and is correlated with depression (Mills et al., 2018).

Photoshop

Not only are social media users constantly surrounded by idealized images of peers and celebrities, but now, due to advances in editing technologies, images are often unnatural or even impossible. Photo manipulation describes altering the appearance of one’s photo, including people’s features, prior to sharing, through means such as photoshopping (McLean et al. 2015). Photo manipulation has become increasingly accessible for individuals, and research shows that young girls begin learning about photoshopping techniques by the age of 12-13 (Kiefner-Burmeister & Musher-Eizenman, 2018). Because people use social media to seek validation from their peers, those dissatisfied with their appearances are more likely to manipulate their photos online (Lonergan et al. 2019). McLean et al. 2015 found that girls with pre-existing body-related and eating concerns are more likely to photoshop their photos in efforts to present the most ideal version of themselves.

        However, photoshopping a photo doesn’t necessarily increase that individuals’ self-perceptions; in fact, it usually has the opposite effect. Lonergan et al. (2019) found that those who reported to photoshop their images consequently reported higher levels of body dissatisfaction. This can be explained by the aforementioned self-discrepancy theory — users who photoshop their photos are likely aware of the disparities between their online personas and real life appearances (Kim 2021). Research from McLean et al. 2015 suggests that there are large correlations between photo manipulation and self-esteem, revealing that those who use photoshop hope to improve self-image, but instead, hurt it drastically. This phenomenon is especially problematic because as photoshopping becomes a norm, girls feel even less comfortable with their true-selves: Mills et al. (2018) found that girls unable to digitally alter their photos before posting had significant increases in anxiety.

        Not only does photoshopping have negative effects on those who manipulate their own photos, but also, it negatively impacts the social media environment in general. Kleemans et al. (2018) found that exposure to manipulated images online directly led to lower body images, and that this was especially true for individuals with high social comparison tendencies. Additionally, Kiefner-Burmeister & Musher-Eizenman (2018) found that college age females’ body images decreased after exposure to digitally edited images. Though many are familiar with photoshopping techniques, manipulated photos are nonetheless hard to detect. Research reveals that girls are usually unable to distinguish between real and photoshopped images and are said to have found manipulated images “realistic” (Kleemans et al., 2018).

Research Questions and Hypothesis

RQ1: Are those who use photoshop more satisfied with their online persona as a result of photoshopping?

RQ2: Do girls who photoshop do so to improve their own self-image or to improve others’ perceptions of them?

H1: Girls who photoshop their photos are more likely to have low body image.

H2: Girls who photoshop their photos are more likely to feel unsatisfied in their social lives.

H3: There will be a negative relationship between the extent to which girls photoshop and their self-esteem.

Methods

        To test these hypotheses, this study will survey adolescent girls aged 12-18 in the United States. Participants will be recruited through their school systems through information from their teachers. This survey will reach out to fifty middle and high schools across the United States, and after the teachers are briefed on the purpose of the research, their students will bring home a consent form for which their parents are to sign. Following parental consent, the teachers will administer the surveys during class time online. To incentivize teachers to administer the surveys, each class that completes the survey will be eligible to win a $100 Amazon gift card to be used for classroom supplies.

Because this study is interested in how self-esteem influences photoshopping practices, self-esteem will be measured and considered as both an independent and dependent variable. Self-esteem is a multidimensional variable that will be measured using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale (RSES). RSES is a widely used measure (Hawi & Samaha et al. 2017) that’s found correlations with social media use and self-esteem, however it hasn’t been used to determine the relationship with self-esteem and photoshop. Though normally scored on a Likert-scale of four options, the RSES in this study will contain seven options to represent a broader array of emotion. Additionally, this study will add questions determining participants’ self-esteem levels following photoshopping photos, through likert-scale prompts such as “I feel better about myself after posting a photoshopped photo.”

Similarly, body image will be evaluated as an independent variable influencing participants’ photoshopping practices. To measure participants’ body images, this study devised a series of questions on a Likert-scale addressing levels of body satisfaction, including “I wish I could lose a little weight” and “I’m satisfied with my physical appearance.” To measure H2, this study proposes questions on the nature of participants’ friend groups and friendships, posing questions on a likert-scale such as “I feel well-liked by my friends” and “I consider myself to be popular.”

Photoshop levels will be evaluated as a dependent variable, influenced by self-esteem and body image, as well as an independent variable that influences participants’ feelings of social acceptance and self-esteem. The extent to which adolescents photoshop will be measured through Likert-scale survey questions designed by this research team, including questions like “I often use editing apps to smooth my skin before posting” and “I would feel uncomfortable posting an unedited photo on my account.” This study will measure how participants feel their photoshopping practices affect their relationships through Likert-scale questions such as “        I think photoshopping my photos increases my social standing with my friends.”

Because research has found that women are more susceptible to the negative consequences of social media (Huang et al. 2018), this study will control for gender by merely sampling girls. Additionally, social media use will be a control variable, and participants who do not use social media will be asked to skip the photoshopping questions. Similarly, those who do not photoshop their photos will be asked to skip the photoshop questions.

References

Professor Mark Coddington

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